What You Should Know Before Implementing an ISO 9001 Quality Management System

Successfully implementing an ISO 9001 Quality Management System depends on developing a clear understanding of seven aspects of the program, including:

1. The purpose of a quality management system

The principles of quality management are:

Quality is achieved through conformance to defined specifications in terms of performance, price, and delivery and is not just limited to how a product or service looks or performs.

Customer satisfaction is achieved by understanding the customer requirements and using methods to ensure that these requirements are consistently met.

Controlling and improving processes are achieved through the use of documented policies, procedures, and continual improvement activities.

The ISO 9001 Quality Management System is a business system designed to make it easier for companies to comply with these principles.

The system establishes both the rules for identifying the customer requirements and the policies and procedures for providing organizations with the means for delivering products and services that comply with these requirements. It also creates a means for ensuring consistency, stability, and the continual improvement of the processes used in running a business. It's based on documentation and demands effective information management, operational discipline, and accountability.

The ISO 9001 Quality Management System was developed and is managed by an internationally recognized organization. The system was originally implemented in 1987, subsequently revised in 2000, and is currently used in over 130 different countries by over 350,000 companies.

2. The benefits of a system

An ISO9001 Quality Management System has the potential of providing several significant benefits, including:

Improved Profitability ? Profit improvement results from more productive employees, better organization, better suppliers, better infrastructure, and systematic continual improvement programs.

Employees are more productive because the system establishes standards for hiring and training, requires employee involvement, and demands accountability.

Documented procedures create better organization, which promotes consistency and reduces the number of mistakes.

Qualification criteria, auditing procedures, and the use of performance measurements improves supplier performance.

Controls and policies placed on the management of the infrastructure including the buildings, machinery, tooling, software and hardware, and the general working conditions result in more reliable and better working conditions.

Corrective and preventive action programs and other continual improvement processes provide a mechanism for preventing problems from reoccurring, finding and fixing problems before they occur, and developing new and better ways of doing things.

If effectively implemented a quality management system can eliminate duplication and process variability, lower cycle times and inventories, and reduce both in-house and field failures.

Improved Customer Satisfaction ? Customers benefit because:

Policies and procedures for managing process information, measuring instruments, and the verification and validation requirements result in better products.

Procedural changes and improvements in supplier performance result in better deliveries.

Changes in the way customer communication and product development are managed result in better customer relations.

Increased Sales ? ISO 9001 certification is an internationally recognized accomplishment. It?s a bragging right but more importantly it?s a promotional opportunity. It opens doors to prospects that treat certification as a tipping point or a supplier requirement, and it's a means of letting your customers know that you comply with a set of internationally recognized management standards.

Improved Job Satisfaction ? Job satisfaction improves because:

The system includes change processes that provide all employees with an opportunity to make a difference in how a company is managed.

There's comfort in knowing what you're responsible for doing, and

There?s security in knowing that the system creates a more competitive position.

The instructions bridge interrelated responsibilities, which eliminates confusion and reduces conflict.

The key word to remember is ?potential.? The benefits don?t come automatically and won't happen without a genuine commitment starting at the top, a system that is well composed and managed, and a long-term commitment.

3. The components of the implementation process

The three components of the implementation process are: 1) documentation, 2) information management, and 3) operational changes.

Documentation ? On the surface it may seem that developing the ISO 9000 documentation shouldn?t be that difficult. You must have a manual that includes a policy, objectives, scope, and the interaction of the processes; and you must have written instructions for:

1. Managing the quality system documents
2. Managing the quality system records
3. Conducting internal audits
4. Controlling nonconforming product
5. Implementing corrective action
6. Implementing preventive action

The standard also hints at the need for additional instructions, e. g. referring to the work instructions, section 7.1 states ?shall determine the following, as appropriate,? but technically, aside from the manual and these six instructions, anything more is optional.

The reality, however, is that in order to get the most out of a quality management system a great deal of additional documentation is required. A primary function of the system is to establish consistency and eliminate misunderstandings, which is best facilitated with clear and unambiguous written instructions. Policies, which are a pervasive part of any system, have absolutely no value if they're not in writing, and enforcing accountability is extremely difficult if the responsibilities are not spelled out.

Information Management ? Extensive information management is another integral part of the implementation process. Just keeping track of all of the records associated with the quality system is in itself a daunting challenge. Then there are training records, records of all of the customer complaints, warranty claims, and past due shipments. There's also sales and purchasing records, traceability documentation, product development records, verification and validation records, incoming inspection records, and internal and external non-conformance records.

All of this involves gathering, managing, and analyzing information, which is an unavoidable requirement of the ISO 9001 standard.

Operational Changes ? The final component of the implementation process is the operational changes, which are the changes needed in order to meet the procedural requirements of your system. These include such things as training, instrument calibration, housekeeping, product traceability, product preservation, managing nonconforming materials, auditing, and the implementation of the corrective and preventive action activities. It's not good enough to say what you're going to do, you actually have to do it.

System documentation and information management are the paperwork part of the system. The operational changes are the action part and represent the part of the implementation process that makes the system work.

4. The system content

An ISO 9001 quality management system is not limited to just the processes and procedures required by the ISO 9001 Standard.

Section 0.3 in the Introduction of the International Standard states: ISO 9004 is recommended as a guide for organizations whose top management wish to move beyond the requirements of ISO 9001, in pursuit of continual improvement of performance.

Section 0.4 states:
This International Standard does not include guidance specific to other management systems, such as those particular to environmental management, occupational health and safety management, financial management, or risk management. However, this International Standard enables an organization to align or integrate its own quality management system(s) in order to establish a quality management system that follows the guidelines of this International Standard.

The implications are: 1) you?re encouraged to use the ideas in the 9004 standard and therefore not limited to building your quality management system exclusively around the requirements in the ISO 9001 standard, and 2) you?re free to combine processes and instructions from other systems.

What makes this significant is the fact that the ISO 9001 requirements are far from inclusive. There's nothing, for instance, in the standard to address inventory control, yet this is a major concern for most companies and a logical addition to a quality management system. The same can be said for product costing. It?s difficult to develop the cost of quality if you?re not costing your products. Nor is there anything in the standard to regulate environmental, safety, business planning, or financial concerns, all of which have a significant impact on the way most people run their business.

The objective is to create a system that effectively manages the important activities of your business, which means that if something is not included in the standard but nevertheless important to your operation, not only can it be included it should be included.

5. The system structure

The authors of the standard have also made it clear that the outline of the standard is not meant as an outline for the quality system documentation.

Section 0.1 of the Introduction states:
It is not the intent of this International Standard to imply uniformity in the structure of quality management systems or uniformity of documentation.

It is also noted that every system is:
[i]nfluenced by varying needs, particular objectives, the products provided, the processes employed, and the size and structure of the organization.

The message is that you're responsible for structuring your own system. There is no process list and no procedure list anywhere to be found in the standard, and nowhere in the standard is it suggested that you should use the outline of the standard as a basis for identifying your processes or developing your procedures.

To the contrary, a persuasive argument can be made that to do so is a mistake. It limits the scope of the system because it removes the need for thinking about the processes that are unique to your operation, and it bogs down the implementation process because it causes you to design procedures around requirements rather than developing procedures to meet your needs, which can be like pushing a square peg into a round hole.

6. The ?process approach?

While the ?process approach? is one of the eight quality management principles listed in section 4.3 of the ISO 9004 standards, and the use of the ?process approach? is recommended as a means for structuring your ISO 9001 system (refer to section 0.2 of the standard), neither standard provides a clear explanation of what a process approach is.

The ISO 9004 standard defines the process approach principle as:
A desired result is achieved more efficiently when activities and related resources are managed as a process.

The ISO 9001 standard defines a process as:
An activity using resources, and managed in order to enable the transformation of inputs into outputs.

Our way of interpreting the meaning of a ?process? is to group related activities based on defining inputs and outputs. For example, the inputs and outputs of the human resource process may be defined as:

Input = Rules for making sure employees are informed and capable of performing the assigned responsibilities

Output = Capable, competent, trusted, and motivated employees

A process that defines the management of the infrastructure of an organization may be described by:

Input = Rules and policies for managing the tangible assets used to support the business

Output =Fewer disruptions, a better working environment resulting in fewer mistakes, better efficiency, better throughput, and more satisfied customers

Policies and procedures that affect such things as hiring, training, and performance management would be part of the human resource process. Housekeeping, machinery maintenance, network maintenance, and the maintenance of measuring devices would be part of the infrastructure process.

The authors of the 9001 standard explain the ?process approach? as: The application of a system of processes within an organization, together with the identification and interactions of these processes, and their management.

Our way of interpreting the meaning of ?process approach? is to think in terms of a common objective for a set of different processes. An objective might be the continual improvement of the management system, which is what is used in the illustration shown in the standard; or an objective might be the growth and profitability of the organization, which is what we use in our 9000 Advisers system model. It?s the objective that binds the processes together and determines how the processes interact. It is also an explanation that fits the model illustrated in the ISO 9001 Standard.

Structuring systems based on this interpretation of the ?process approach? result in systems that are more personal, flexible, and easier to develop. You?re not handcuffed by the outline of the ISO

Standard, and you're not limited by the requirements of the standard. You establish processes that represent the particular needs of your operation and develop the policies and procedures that bring about the desired output of these processes. Then you make sure these policies and procedures accommodate all of the requirements of the ISO 9001 Standard.

7. The basic compliance requirements

Under certain circumstances it is possible to request an ?exclusion? if for some reason you find it impossible to comply with certain requirements within the standard. The requirement must be part of clause 7 of the standard, you must provide an explanation and the justification for the request in the Quality System Manual, and your alternative solution must not affect the ability ?to provide product that meets customer and applicable regulatory requirements.? (Refer to sections 1.2 and 4.2.2 of the standard.)

Procedures that are added to your system as a result of ideas taken from the ISO 9004 Standard, or from other systems, or simply because they are an important part of the way you run your business are not subject to the compliance audit for ISO 9001 certification. Only the requirements specified in the ISO 9001 standard are audited, but unless you have been granted an exclusion you must comply with all of these requirements.

Mr. John Orthaber, BS Metallurgical Engineering, MBA

For the last ten years John has worked as independent consultant specializing in quality systems and product costing. He owns Success Resources and the subsidiary The 9000 Advisers, which specializes in assisting companies implement ISO 9001 Quality Management Systems.

ISO 9000 Assessments

Establishing standards is critical to the success of every business. That is why numerous companies go for ISO 9000 certification, which is a series of globally identified standards and rules that define an effective quality system. ISO standards themselves do not perform assessments or audits to ensure that they are applied by companies in conformity with the requirements of the standards.

Many testing laboratories and certification bodies conduct independent assessment services to provide evidence that services, goods, or systems match to ISO standards. The assessment of a quality system against the ISO 9000 standard is variously referred to as certification and registration. The certification corroborates that the system is in conformity with all the standard requirements. Agencies that issue ISO 9000 certificates are called certification bodies or registration bodies or registrars.

The registrars evaluate and validate an organization's management (including quality, environmental, safety) system for conforming to the ISO standards. This verification, confirmation and the concluding validation are commonly known as ISO assessment auditing process. Generally, there are two types of assessment auditing - auditing by an external certification body and auditing by internal employees trained for this process. In the ISO 9000 context, the term accreditation refers to the work of national accreditation bodies. ANAB is a well-known accreditation body in the US, famous for its ethics and integrity.

All ISO 9000 series require measurements and assessments for customer satisfaction and management capabilities. Many private and government organizations carry out reasonably priced conformity assessment services. Most of these organizations have professionals who are experienced in working with very small organizations to multi nationals.

ISO 9000 provides detailed information on ISO 9000, ISO 9000 Standards, ISO 9000 Software, ISO 9000 Consulting and more. ISO 9000 is affiliated with Home Inspections.

ISO 9000 Quality Assurance

ISO 9000 is a set of standards developed by the ISO (international organization for standardization) for quality assurance systems. It was first published in 1987 and the standards were modified in 1994. ISO 9000 serves as a true base for organizations to improve their quality assurance systems.

A quality assurance system involves the organizational structure, duties, procedures, processes, and materials for applying quality management. It is designed to help businesses assure their services and products, and please customer hopes by meeting their specifications. Quality assurance covers all activities of a product?s life cycle, including planning, controlling, measuring, testing and reporting, and improving quality levels.

ISO 9000 quality assurance models view an enterprise as a network of interconnected processes. For a quality system to be ISO-compliant, the processes should address areas known in the standard and should be documented and practiced as described. Documenting a process gives an organization the opportunity to understand, control, and improve its process network.

ISO quality assurance is a management activity that contains auditing and reporting actions. These two functions assist the manager to verify the efficiency of the quality system. ISO 9000 expresses quality assurance resources in general terms that can be used by any organization irrespective of the products or services provided. However, ISO 9000 does not explain how a business should apply these quality system elements.

Most companies first attempt to get certified to one of the quality assurance system models in the ISO 9000 series. For this, the company?s quality system and actions are audited by third party auditors for conformity to the standard and for effective operation. Upon successful certification, the company obtains a certificate from a certification body represented by the auditors.

ISO 9000 provides detailed information on ISO 9000, ISO 9000 Standards, ISO 9000 Software, ISO 9000 Consulting and more. ISO 9000 is affiliated with Home Inspections.

ISO 9000 Services

Designing a quality management system that fulfills the requirements of ISO 9000 is not a difficult task. Many ISO 9000 services help businesses build up systems that obey the requirements of the ISO 9000 series of international standards.

ISO 9000 is a complete quality control system recognized and respected throughout the world. It applies to all types of businesses irrespective of their size and final outcome. ISO 9000 now includes three quality standards, namely, ISO 9000:2000, ISO 9001:2000 and ISO 9004:2000. The first one introduces requirements and other two present guidelines.

These services assist business organizations to attain ISO 9000 knowledge, implement the standard, and prepare for registration with the least time, in the most convenient way, and cost-effectively too. Both product and service oriented businesses seek the assistance of ISO 9000 services to improve their productivity and customer happiness through reduced waste and rework, shortened cycle times, superior supplier relations, and improved problem tracking. Most ISO 9000 services are customized to your organization?s particular needs.

Their auditor team of these ISO 9000 services consists of experienced professionals who are qualified to evaluate companies pursuing all variations of certification under the ISO 9000 standard. The audits done by such professionals provide public recognition that your business is dedicated to producing quality products or services, and giving prompt delivery.

With many years of experience, ISO 9000 services can prepare your organization to implement standards and avoid unforeseen casualties. They offer assistance through unique services, tools, and workshops and training events such as facilitator training, internal audit training, and documentation training.

Many ISO 9000 services also offer project planning with senior management, compliance reviews and gap analyses, quality manual/procedure review, writing and organizing procedures and other documentation, assistance with supplier development, and liaison with third-party assessors.

ISO 9000 provides detailed information on ISO 9000, ISO 9000 Standards, ISO 9000 Software, ISO 9000 Consulting and more. ISO 9000 is affiliated with Home Inspections.

ISO 9000 Training

ISO 9000 training is the process of training individuals for the purpose of attaining ISO certification. ISO 9000 is a set of standards implemented by organizations for quality management systems that control the fabrication of a product or service. Perhaps today?s most popular generic international standard, it guarantees first-rate quality at all stages of design, development, manufacturing and delivery.

ISO 9000 training enables an individual to understand various quality standards as well as how they are basically planned. That is, it provides a clears idea about the interrelationship of ISO 9000, ISO 9001 and ISO 9004. The training program is also good for understanding ISO requirements and various ISO clauses. Most ISO 9000 training courses also include introduction to the ISO 9000 quality management system (QMS), process documentation, implementing an efficient QMS, and process auditing.

Process documentation workshops help you learn how to document your management system. This includes detailed methods for developing, documenting and implementing your business and quality processes. These programs also help you gain practical experience.

Before receiving ISO 9000 certification, businesses conduct an audit of documents and methods. An auditor training course help you train your own auditors to conduct process audits. These courses explain how to carry out a process audit and how to audit documented and undocumented processes.

Stat-A-Matrix in New Jersey, Management Systems International in California, and ISO 9000 Network in Massachusetts are some of the leading companies offering ISO 9000 training and consulting. They provide on-site seminars and help organizations achieve ISO 9000 registration. Their training covers the most up-to-date information, process mapping, and project management. Their classes are developed and delivered by ISO 9000 experts.

ISO 9000 provides detailed information on ISO 9000, ISO 9000 Standards, ISO 9000 Software, ISO 9000 Consulting and more. ISO 9000 is affiliated with Home Inspections.

ISO 9000 Vicarious Liability

ISO 9000 is an enormously successful international quality management system set by the international standards organization. Apart from helping in designing a quality assurance system, ISO 9000 also imposes many liabilities and responsibilities on the part of business organizations.

ISO certification can guard organizations against corporate vicarious liability. Vicarious liability refers to the legal responsibility (accountability) of an employer for the actions, crime or injury done by one of his employees in the course of discharging duties. Crimes that come under the purview of vicarious liability include fraud and theft, defamation, breach of confidence and data protection, and discrimination based on race and gender.

ISO 9000 vicarious liability processes help firms reduce risks. The extent of liability depends upon the relation between the nature of the employment and the crime that has been committed. When the two are connected closely enough, the employer can be held liable.

Common forms of vicarious liabilities include employers' vicarious liability, principals' vicarious liability, and the liability of corporations in tort. Consider, for example, principals? liability. In this case, the owner of a car is vicariously liable for the rash and negligent driving of the driver. The owner is the principal and the driver is his employee. Laws have been reluctant to extend this liability to the owners of some other kinds of chattel. For instance, the owner of an airplane is not vicariously liable for a pilot?s misdeeds.

A business can operate only through the actions and deeds of its employees and agents. Therefore, it is important to decide to what extend vicarious liability will apply to hold a business liable for the frauds of its directors or other officers. ISO 9000 certification provides a clear description of such situations.

ISO 9000 provides detailed information on ISO 9000, ISO 9000 Standards, ISO 9000 Software, ISO 9000 Consulting and more. ISO 9000 is affiliated with Home Inspections.

ISO 9001: A Brief Explanation on ISO 9001 Quality Procedure

When our company intend to implement Quality Management System (ISO 9001:2000), we should prepare quality management system documentation that includes documented statement of quality policy and quality objectives, a quality manual, quality procedures and workplace references or work instructions to ensure the effective planning, operation, and control of company processes.

In regard with quality procedure, it should be established, documented, implemented and maintained. The documented ISO 9001:2000 procedure may be different from one company to another because of the size of company and type of activities, the complexity of processes and their interactions and the competence of their personnel.

In practice, format of ISO 9001:2000 quality procedures may also differ from one company to another. For a company that is trying to make their own ISO 9001: 2000 quality procedures for the first time, using ISO 9001:2000 procedure examples can be very helpful. It does not mean duplicating the ISO 9001:2000 procedure example for the company own use.

An ISO 9001:2000 quality procedure may consist of cover sheet, flow diagram, and procedure in detail. The cover sheet contains Company name, title of ISO 9001:2000 procedure, sheet number, document number and revision record (revision number, description of revision, date of revision and signature of the person in charge.

The flow diagram explains step by step from the beginning how the ISO 9001:2000 procedure flows. And the procedure its self should at least have an objective, scope, general explanation, definitions used in the procedure, content of the procedure, records used, related documents and important attachments. The contents of ISO 9001:2000 procedure is a text description of the work flow or instructions based on its flow diagram. The description is started with the persons in charge and followed by explanation of their tasks or jobs as specified in the flow diagram.

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ISO9000 & Beyond

To be successful, organisations must prove themselves to be indispensable to their customers, be attuned to their employees' needs, be willing to partner with their suppliers, and be considerate of the social, environmental, and safety outcomes of their performance. These rather new and expanded objectives of business operations, are the main pillars of business excellence.

Samson and Challis (2002) studied leading international organisations in an effort to determine why some were more successful than others in their pursuit of excellence. They identified a total of 14 principles that served as catalysts for business excellence. The extent to which each organisation embodied these principles appeared to be directly related to the speed of its journey towards excellence.

Furthermore, the EFQM Excellence Model, which is used to adjudicate the European Quality Award, and the most frequently discussed model in quality literature (van der Wiele et aI., 1995, 2001), uses self-assessment as a tool to identify organisational strengths, as well as areas in which there exists room for improvement. Its outcome is a structured plan for amelioration, which is subsequently monitored for progress. In addition to this self-assessment component, the EFQM assists organisations with their continuous improvement initiatives by facilitating gauging of progress against measures of total quality management, identification of improvement opportunities benchmarking and organisational learning (McAdam and Kelly, 2002).

Truly effective use of the excellence models for continuous improvement requires the input of management and employees. For maximum benefit, it must be effectively marketed by top management and internalised by the staff of the organisation (van der Wiele et aI., 2000). Also, to be optimally effective, quality improvements should be prioritised and should focus on the results category of a business excellence model such as the EFQM Excellence Model (EFQM, 1999; Seghezzi, 2001), the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award (MBNQA, 2002), or the Canadian Framework for Business Excellence (CFBE, 2002).

Quality management The family of ISO 9000 standards can be regarded as the foundation on which organisations can build their excellence programs. The success of a quality management program that builds upon the foundation of the ISO 9000 system has been said to relate to the original motivation for registration (van der Wiele et aI., 2001). The message is that the added value that an organisation derives from the ISO 9000 standards should be a result of that organisation's motives for, and approach to, implementation (Cobb, 2003; Gotzamani and Tsiotras, 2002; Singels et aI., 2001). Issues such as organisation, internal and external communications, employee awareness of quality, product conformance and customer satisfaction are all addressed within the ISO 9000 system, simplifying management commitment to quality. This can be a driving force to go beyond and achieve business excellence. However, if not done properly, it is also possible that implementation of ISO 9000 may lead to excessive emphasis on the documented procedures and less emphasis on achieving business objectives (Gotzamani and Tsiotras, 2002).

The importance and relevance of quality cannot be overstated. In recent decades, public, private, and third-sector organisations have been awakened to the necessity of creating and ensuring quality in every aspect of their operations. Far beyond "permitting things to run smoothly", an emphasis on quality in management systems is now considered essential to an organisation's prosperity. Globalisation and an enhanced concept of corporate liability are two important societal trends contributing to this emphasis on quality. There are numerous reports in the literature that describe quality management practices and the benefits that emanate from implementation of an ISO 9000 system. Many of these are case studies or reports of the benefits and drawbacks of such systems. The emphasis is on continuous improvement which is beyond simple conformance to the ISO 9000 standards.

The Balanced Scorecard The Balanced Scorecard (BSC) is an instrument which translates the mission and strategy of an organisation into a broad collection of action metrics and indicators, and which subsequently provides the structure necessary to serve as control and strategic measurement system (Kaplan and Norton, 1996). The BSC is applicable to any type of organisation, albeit with modifications. For example, a BSC for non-profit organisations must be modified to include a mission perspective and any other additional perspectives which provide specific information on social demographic factors regarding the organisation's environment. Viewed as a performance measurement system (PMS), the BSC is not a new tool as PMSs have existed for a long time in all organisations and in most cultures, in one form or another. Hence the novelty of the BSC does not reside in its existence but rather in the attempt to achieve standardisation via conventions and universal rules (Urrutia de Hoyos, 2001).

The BSC's most standardised antecedent is the "tableau de bord" (Mallo and Merlo, 1995), a tool utilised principally by French companies, and whose configuration and conceptual basis is very similar to the BSC. One explanation for the lack of standardisation of PMSs along the line of the tableau de bord and BSC is certainly the lack of publicised information regarding their existence due to its being an excessively strategic tool; due to their strategic nature, organisations are very reluctant to disclose their existence and utilisation.

Development of the BSC The development of the BSC has gone through three distinct phases.

The First phase Initially the BSC was intended as a measurement tool, with an operational and tactical focus. It was a collection of indicators arranged by perspectives or key areas, which permitted the identification of the determinants of the performance of a business. The original objective was to overcome the limitations of using only financial indicators. These last only provided information about actual, past performance, and failed to provide information on the drivers of future performance (Kaplan and Norton, 1996). The four BSC perspectives - financial, customer, internal processes, learning and growth - were selected on the basis of the results of a study by David Norton and Harvard University (Kaplan and Norton, 1992).

The Second phase In the process of identifying indicators for each of the four perspectives, it was discovered that by developing strategy maps, not only could the appropriate indicators be identified, but also management could utilise the BSC for strategic planning. In the first phase, indicators were identified subsequent to the development and definition of the organisation's strategy, and had an operational and/or tactical focus. During this phase, it was discovered that it was not enough to simply identify indicators, it was also necessary that the indicators were extracted directly from the strategic plan. This so as to identify, and explicitly describe, the causal relationships with the organisation's strategy. In other words, the indicators were identified prior to the development and definition of the organisation's strategy, and as such playa key role in the development and definition of the strategy. The act of measurement has consequences that exceed simply providing information on past results. It also directs attention to the future, since the indicators selected by management are 'de facto' those which are important to management. Hence, with a clearly defined strategy, coherently communicated and aligned with change drivers, what was initially an information/measurement tool, and part of the management control function, was converted into a tool for strategic management (Kaplan and Norton, 2000) and a part of the strategy formation process.

The Third phase The BSC communicates the organisation's strategic plan via maps in which the cause-effect relationships between the different strategic objectives can be visualised. This permits management to utilise the BSC as a tool for change management leading to the achievement of Business Excellence.

Conclusion This article explored the broad issues related to business excellence and the application of ISo 9000 and the BSC as the first steps in achieving excellence. ISO 9000 and the BSC aim at assisting firms to develop systems and procedures which allow them to achieve business excellence by becoming more customer-oriented. The implementation of such systems requires on-going support from senior management; taking into consideration the role of internal reporting and operational control systems to monitor and proactively adapt to changing business needs.

Sandro Azzopardi is a professional author who writes articles on his web site and local newspapers. http://www.theinfopit.com/business/iso9000/iso9000andbeyond-1.php

Understanding Film Types and ISO Ratings - Beginning Photography Basics

Beginning photographers are usually so wrapped up in learning about exposure, depth of field, and creative composition - they tend to overlook the importance of what they are recording the image onto. Whether it be film or a digital sensor - what takes place when the image hits it has a huge determining factor of what it will look like, and most especially will determine how much work you have to do in the darkroom or on the PC.

It should be noted that while I will be mentioning popular film brands, I am not promoting them. I'm not sponsored, nor am I a film sales affiliate. These are the brands I am accustomed to working with. You will need to decide for yourself and hopefully these guidelines will help you.

In my beginning years as a film photographer if you were to dig through my backpack you would find a dozen different film types and way too many rolls per type. "Afterall," I would mutter under the extra weight, "never know what I will encounter!" To a certain extent that is true, but having 10 rolls of 100 ISO color print film of varying brands is a bit extreme!

A simple guideline to follow that you can test for yourself starts with choosing the right ISO rating for the film you work with. As a matter of fact, these ISO principals are the same for digital cameras as well!

Quite simply, the ISO rating is that number on the film box. If you purchased it at the local grocery store it's usually a 200, 400, or 800. That number is the film's rating of how sensitive it is to light. The higher the number the more sensitive - the lower, the less. The mistake many beginning photographers make is the assumption that the higher the number the better because they can shoot in lower light and not use flash, and still use faster shutter speeds. This is fine if you are CSI photographer at a crime scene at night...not so fine if you are shooting a gorgeous landscape with the last of the day's light on the horizon.

Basically - the higher the ISO number the worse the quality of the image - especially if you will enlarge prints. The lower the ISO (particularly where landscapes and nature are concerned) the better the image quality. With print film - color or black & white, when you get up into the 800 and higher range you will see an increase of grain in the printed image. This becomes even more visible as you enlarge the photo. While some artsy photos are quite appealing with this grain, it is extremely unappealing in fine art landscapes or nature. Of course the higher ISO rated films have their place in photography: sports and, well, CSI night photography!

In the 125 ISO or lower range these films are extremely fine grain and generally reproduce fantastic colors! They are excellent for enlargements. Black and white film in this ISO range will have superb contrast and an incredibly smooth tonal range (the transition from white to black).

As a starting point I recommend the following ISO ratings:

50 - 125: Landscapes and scenics
125 - 160: Portraits, people photography where flattering skin reproduction is important
200 or higher: Sports

In case you are wondering, you will not find these high quality films at your local convenience store! You will need to find a camera shop or buy from a professional supplier.

Now, with a general understanding of ISO, this leads to the next part: which film types? For the sake of simplifying education I am focusing on Daylight film, which is usually what you are handed over the counter. But should you shoot with print film or slide film? (also referred to as transparency or chrome film) This will depend on what you are shooting and what will be the end result.

Color Landscapes

Most serious film photographers will agree that slide film in the 100 ISO or lower range is what they work with exclusively. Along with many other photographers, if I am working in color film for landscapes you will only find Fuji Velvia (50 ISO) or Fuji Provia (100 ISO) slide film in my bag. They enlarge prints extremely well, have unsurpassed sharp resolution, and reproduce fantastic shadows and realistic colors. If you have any aspirations of submitting your work to publishers, you will need to learn to work with slide film. Most only accept transparencies or digital files.

The disadvantages with these slide films is they are just that - transparencies. You will have to spend a few more bucks to have prints made from them, and unless you are working with a highly skilled printer the results can be sometimes be disappointing compared to the original transparency. If you want to make a digital file out of it you will need to buy a high end film and transparency scanner. Slide film is also very easy to over expose during the shoot. So until you are accomplished at right-on exposures, you may think I'm an idiot recommending these slide films.

If you are a serious landscape photographer my personal recommendation is to avoid color print films. I switched to the high-end slide films because I never found a color print film that satisfied me. However, I have no doubt there are photographers who have something to say about that.

Black and white landscapes are entirely different. There are many excellent black and white print films available, but after much testing you will only find Ilford PanF (50 ISO) and FP4 (125 ISO) in my film bag. In my bold opinion - black and white print film for landscapes and scenics does not get any better than these.

Portrait and People Photography

Until you become highly skilled with exposure, and you are working with models that have flawless skin - stick to print films. The most important factor with color portrait photography is skin tones. Using films with ISO ratings lower than 160 will bring out the red pigments in a person's skin more than if you stick to the 160 range. Go below 100 and your model will look like they have a nasty rash! I speak from experience.

Kodak makes a wonderful color portrait film called Portra 160. In my opinion it reproduces the most pleasant skin tones and the contrast is perfect. Just as important, it enlarges very well. If you want to try black and white portraits I also recommend giving Ilford FP4 a try. You will see some of the smoothest facial tones imaginable with this film!

One of the advantages with color and black & white print film is the exposure tolerance (or film lattitude) is excellent. This means that if your exposure is just slightly off, the image will still most likely come out looking very nice.

I recommend these as starting points to find what works best for your photography. It is important for you to learn for yourself what works well, and what does not. However, applying these principals will give you a significant step up towards perfecting your photographic work.

Chip Clark is a San Diego based professional photographer, with over 20 years experience in landscape photography, wildlife photography, sports photography, and portraiture.

Chip Clark's photography tutorials are available at http://www.chipclarkphotography.com/advanced-techniques-for-beginning-photographers.htm

Publishing and reprint rights are granted solely according to the guidelines set forth by Ezinearticles.com.

ISO For the Small Business

ISO has been around long enough that everyone is aware of what can be gained by implementation of this system, yet many businesses are still reluctant to adopt this practice into their operations. There are several reasons for this, probably the number one being that it is deemed to be too costly and time consuming when compared to the perceived gains for smaller businesses to readily commit to this rigorous and detailed approach to improvement.

Designing and adopting this standard can appear intimidating when you look at all that is involved. As a small company you may feel that your limited staff and resources are not fully equipped to handle this myriad of documentation, standardization, auditing, and most of all, training that is required to create and maintain a successful ISO system. As daunting as the process may seem, with a little planning it can be much easier than you might think.

It is true that approaching ISO as a large organization normally will is quite overwhelming for a smaller company; however, you can approach this endeavor from at totally different perspective and still be successful. The usual route to ISO is to enroll in some form of structured process by registering in a class or seminar through a local college or private service. Since this approach typically follows a somewhat predetermined time frame, keeping pace can put a considerable burden on your limited resources.

ATTACK THE PROBLEM ON YOUR OWN TERMS

Purchase the standard and review it to get a thorough understanding of what is required. Outline where you are currently with your operational procedures. Compare where you are to where you need to be and outline the necessary actions that need to be addressed to meet the requirements of the standard. You can now develop a plan to address each the tasks that fits within your budget and progresses at a pace that does not overtax your workforce.

Make a commitment to methodically work toward implementation on your own. You can enroll in the accreditation programs or work through your underwriter down the road, after you have implemented all or most of the system. This approach leaves room to adapt and to achieve your goal while still remaining capable of handling your day to day manufacturing issues. The downside is that you must remain committed. It is easy to get sidetracked or buried in your daily problem solving and let your completion of ISO to go by the wayside.

BREAK THE PROCESS DOWN

Like any other large and seemingly involved problem, break it down into smaller more manageable tasks. Choose a familiar task to work on that fits into your current experience and capability. Break it down further by limiting the chosen task to a specific area of your organization. Pick one shift, one department, perhaps one work cell that you are comfortable with.

By limiting your area of implementation you increase your odds for success for several reasons. First, you will only be affecting a small portion of your facility which means expense and disruptions will be minimized. If you make mistakes their impact will not be as detrimental. You will be able to visualize not only what needs to be done, but how well you are progressing. You will be able to debug your system on the fly without having to remove the controls, etc. to keep your normal production on schedule.

Secondly, you will be able to determine exactly what is required to implement the change. Do you have the necessary data on hand? What supporting processes or documentation will be required? Is your staff capable of handling all the duties? Will additional investigation, personnel or training be required? You will be able to spread out the expenses over a longer period and allow the necessary time to train your staff.

Furthermore, as you finish a task you will gain a clearer understanding of what will be required to implement this same task into other areas. This will allow you to budget your costs and time much more accurately in the future. As you complete the required documentation and procedures you will have valuable templates that can be easily adjusted for use in other areas or for different processes.

And lastly, once your system has been debugged and implemented in one area it will be much easier to implement it in another. The entire process will also be more readily accepted by your workforce as you progress because having taken the time to get it right the first time, you will have made it easier to understand and comply in the rest of your operation.

LEARN AS YOU GO

As you progress through the standard and the different areas of your organization you be gaining the experience and confidence needed to be successful. Your technical writing skills will improve. Your team building skills will improve. Your mentoring abilities will improve. Your staff will have a deeper and broader understanding of your processes and capabilities down to the fine details. All these will improve your operations and your bottom line. Before you know it, you will be running a much more efficient, capable and reliable business.

As your processes improve so will your competitiveness in the market and you can take advantage of your new found experience to streamline your operations. You will be able to sell, estimate, produce and deliver to more accurate numbers. You will be capable of predicting trouble, discovering problems, solving issues and adapting to your needs more quickly than you could before. When the time comes to increase personnel you will have a clearer picture of the skills the potential employees need to bring with them to your company.

GET ONLY THE HELP YOU REALLY NEED

As an issue comes to light you can’t readily handle, do the research or hire the help you need at that time. Attend the seminars, take the classes or hire a consultant to provide the needed help or direction. Another great source of help in this area is your insurance provider or the underwriter you propose to use when the time comes for certification. You can greatly reduce your training costs by getting the assistance as it is actually needed. Rather than pay for a broad range of advice and direction, some of which you will undoubtedly already possess, get the specific help you actually need and only as the need arises.

DECIDE IF CERTIFICATION IS RIGHT FOR YOU

As you progress through the implementation of the ISO system your understanding of what is required to achieve success will grow. Those tasks which at first seemed complicated and beyond comprehension will become clearer and attainable and suddenly you will be at a point where the system is in place and working. Now is the time to determine if you want to take that last step and actually become ISO certified.

Becoming certified offers some advantages. Certification is a way to celebrate your new found success. The inherent requirements of certification lend themselves to keeping the system in place and functioning properly. It also tells your current and prospective customers, as well as your competition, that you are a world class organization. Certification opens the door to markets that were previously closed to you. Still, certification may not be for everyone. If your products or market access are not limited by being ISO then you may decide to delay or put off certification altogether.

Whether you opt for that piece of paper or not, you will still be able to reap the benefits the ISO system provides. By taking the time to implement the ISO system on your own terms you can significantly reduce the costs of doing so and outperform that section of your competition that found ISO unnecessary or too costly. At the end of the day, the fact is, you will have made enormous strides in your organizations potential, and even though it may have taken you a bit longer, it is still better late than never.

Mr. Cavalluzzi is the founder and owner of CONSOLUTE, LLC. His extensive background in engineering dates back to 1978 an includes the robotics, automotive, aerospace, metals and plastics industries.

Visit us at Consolute, LLC

ISO 9001 - The Three Components of the Implementation Process

The three components to implementing an ISO 9001 quality management system are: 1) documentation, 2) information management, and 3) operational changes.

Documentation

On the surface it may seem like developing the ISO 9001 documentation shouldn’t be that difficult. You must have a manual that includes a policy, objectives, scope, and the interaction of the processes; and you must have written instructions for:

 

1. Managing the quality system documents
2. Managing the quality system records
3. Conducting internal audits
4. Controlling nonconforming product
5. Implementing corrective action
6. Implementing preventive action

 

The standard also hints at the need for additional instructions, e.g., referring to the work instructions, section 7.1 states “shall determine the following, as appropriate,” but technically, aside from the manual and these six instructions, anything more is optional.

The reality, however, is that in order to get the most out of a quality management system a significant amount of additional documentation is required. A primary function of the system is to establish consistency and eliminate misunderstandings, which is best facilitated with clear and unambiguous written instructions. Policies, which are a pervasive part of any system, have absolutely no value if they're not in writing, and enforcing accountability is extremely difficult if the responsibilities are not spelled out.

The ISO 9001 system documentation is normally organized into four sections, including:

 

1. The Manual, which provides background information and explains how the system works;
2. The Administrative Procedures, which include the procedures and policies that define how the company complies with the requirements of the standard and how it manages the processes that are unique to its operation;
3. The Operating Instructions, which are the detailed instructions used to control manufacturing and service activities; and
4. The Reference Documentation, which are documents like industry standards, equipment maintenance manuals, corporate auditing guidelines, employee policies, etc. that define practices, procedures, or performance criteria not covered by the other documents. These can either be externally or internally generated.

 

No two organizations have the same goals and objectives or do things exactly the same way, which means there are always some differences between the procedures and policies of different organizations. It also means that completely documented “off-the-shelf” systems don’t exist and some document development is inevitable. The challenge is to minimize the effort without sacrificing value.

The Manual – The administrative procedures are usually the more difficult and time-consuming of the four sections to develop. The manual, on the other hand, is relatively straightforward and probably the easiest part to develop. The standard suggests what should be included, and an example of a “well written” manual can provide the format for organizing the material. Most of the work is in converting the ideas of the example into documents that describe your situation. Goals and objectives have to be established, processes defined, responsibilities established, the interaction of the processes explained, and the system parameters established.

Administrative Procedures – The secret to developing administrative procedures is 1) using a format that creates readable documents, 2) finding examples of procedures that offer solutions that apply to your needs, and 3) organizing the documentation based a process list.

The “process approach” is the system structure recommended by the authors of the standard and the process list is the starting point of the process approach.

Think of processes as objectives, i.e., maximizing employee output, making sure new products comply with customer requirements, or making sure working conditions adequately support the production objectives. A set of procedures that constitute a means for meeting an objective is what the standard refers to as an “activity group”. Employee vetting, performance reviews, and training procedures is an examples of an activity group that maximizes employee output. The objectives are the outputs of the “process approach” and the procedures (the activity groups) the inputs. Example:

 

Input = Policies and procedures for making sure employees are motivated, informed, and capable of performing the assigned responsibilities

 

 

Output = Maximum employee output

 

 

The process list is simply a list of those objectives that best represent the needs of your organization. They can be different for every organization and are rarely in sync with the outline of the standard.

 

The format used for developing the procedures, to a large extent, determines whether employees will embrace the system. It can be the difference between documents that are easy to read and ones that are not. The better formats include a clear propose, policies that are relevant to the purpose, and an explanation why things are done the way they are done. A good format also leaves no doubt as to who is accountable for the actions of the procedures.

Examples of procedures from other systems provide ideas on how to develop new procedures and how to improve existing procedures. The same examples can also provide formatting ideas. Don’t fall into the trap of thinking that there must be a procedure of every requirement of the standard, or that the documentation has to follow the outline of the standard. The authors of the standard have made it clear that this is not the case. You are encouraged to use a process approach, which is inherently unique to your operation, and to include processes that are important to you but may not included in the standard.

While individual examples can be helpful, continuous system templates that lock into the outline of the standard tend to complicate the implementation process. They depersonalize the system, limit the system to the scope of the standard, and make the process of writing procedures more difficult. Also, don’t go overboard on process mapping and flowcharting. Procedures should be clear to everybody, not just the primary users. A fundamental covenant of the system is continual improvement and some of best improvement ideas come from employees with unrelated responsibilities.

Operating Procedures – The trick to developing operating procedures is in understanding the balance between training and documentation requirements, and in knowing how much information is needed. Too many companies develop too much unnecessary detail.

The standard requires employers to provide employees with the information needed to correctly perform their assigned responsibilities. Proof is either documentation showing that they have been provided the necessary instructions, or training records, which also verifies that they have been provided the necessary instructions. The value of written operating instructions is that they make it easier to hold employees accountable for their actions. From this standpoint, it is only necessary to document those aspects of an operation that are subject to misinterpretation or misunderstanding, which normally doesn’t require a great deal of detail.

Information Management

Managing information is a big part of the standard. The standard states that records shall be maintained in the case of management review meeting minutes (5.6.1); education, training, skills and experience (6.2.2); product validation and verification (7.1.d); inputs for product design and development (7.3.2); and calibration records (7.6). In addition, the standard also requires “evidence of conformity”, which is either physical evidence or documented records, and in many cases records are preferable and sometimes the only alternative.

Records provide a means of confirming that the quality system is controlled, customer requirements are understood, audits are conducted, customers are heard, problems are found and corrected, non-conforming goods are managed, purchasing information is correct, products are traceable, and incoming goods are inspected.

The method of managing information is generally some combination of 1) a file management program, 2) database files such as Microsoft Access, or 3) hard copy files, i.e., binders, file cabinets and manila folders, all of which have advantages and disadvantages.

File Management Programs – File management programs are typically tamper-proof and capable of handling a large volume of information. They’re designed to be paperless systems. Assignments, authorization levels, and additions and revisions to records are keyed into the program, which, under certain conditions, trigger action commands that are communicated via email. There are a few programs tailored to manage primarily ISO 9000 records, but most are universal in nature and designed to manage all types of records. The user is normally responsible for developing the forms and reports needed to manage specific types of records.

The programs are expensive; they come with annual and sometimes monthly maintenance fees; and there are usually costs associated with installation, the number of users, data migration, and training. Many have their own programming language, which makes the user dependent on people with that language skill. And some are web based, which means the program is running on someone else’s server. Generally, they are best suited for companies with a lot of people dealing with a large volume of information.

Database Files – Database files are less expensive, more flexible, and easier to manage. You can either develop your own files or purchase files that have been programmed to deal with specific types of records.

The majority use Microsoft Access and run on a Microsoft Windows operating system. The cost is the cost of the files plus the cost of the Microsoft programs. (The 9000 Advisers offer individual Access files for all the ISO 9001 record keeping requirements.) The files are placed on a server and secured by whatever means is used to secure the server files. Changes and enhancements can be made by anyone who understands Microsoft Access. In most cases there are no user fees or reoccurring maintenance fees, and existing database files can be transferred into the files with the migration functions of the Access program.

Hard Copy Records – Almost everyone ends up with some hard copy records: documents that can’t be scanned, documents with signatures, and documents that are available to all employees. However, building a record keeping policy completely around this approach is risky, even for small companies. It is too easy to misplace documents that move from one person to the next; and it is difficult to manage information that is located in various files, in different offices, and assigned to different people. Responsibilities change and individuals tend to change the way information is gathered and filed. Manual record keeping frequently results in unnecessary duplication, e.g., sales using a different customer list than the person keeping track of the customer complaints. It is also difficult to gather, analyze, and disseminate information. File cabinets are not as accessible as computers and don’t have the sorting, reporting, linking and analytical capabilities of database files.

Operational Changes

The final component of the implementation process is the operational changes, which are the changes needed in order to meet the procedural requirements of a system. They include both the things that are done in order to ensure that the products and services comply with the requirements specified by the customer, as well as the measure taken to in order to improve products and services and the processes used to produce the products and services.

Some of the more common ones include:

 

Administration – 1) Conduct at least one management review meeting. 2) Communicate system developments to all employees. 3) Demonstrate that the key performance indicators are measured, evaluated, and communicated.

 

ISO Representative – 1) Make sure that the auditors are adequately trained. 2) Develop an audit schedule and conduct audits on all of the system procedures. 3) Demonstrate that the corrective and preventive action processes are working. 4) Make system procedures and forms available to employees.

Human Resources –1) Verify that all employees have a basic understanding of the ISO 9000 system. 2) Prove that all employees are capable of performing their respective work assignments, including the top-level executives. 2) Establish a training program for developing employee skills.

Purchasing – 1) Demonstrate that all of the primary vendors are qualified and that their performance is routinely evaluated. 2) Prove that material specifications are verified before they are released to vendors.

Sales/Customer Service – 1) Demonstrate that customer feedback is gathered and analyzed, including records of complaints. 2) Prove that processing capabilities are reviewed before orders for new products are confirmed.

Engineering – 1) Demonstrate that the information released to production is current, accurate, and complies with customer requirements. 2) Demonstrate that product changes affecting form, fit, or function are not implemented without customer approval.

Production – 1) Establish a calibration program that complies with the requirements of the standard. 2) Demonstrate that machinery capabilities have been validated. 3) Prove that nonconforming materials are not mixed in with satisfactory materials. 4) Prove that that shipments comply with the customer requirements. 5) Prove that incoming materials comply with purchase specifications. 6) Prove that operators are provided with the information required to produce products that conform to customer requirements. 7) Demonstrate how materials with shelf life are managed.

 

System documentation and information management are the paperwork part of the system. The operational changes are the action part and represent the part of the implementation process that makes the system work

John is founder and president of http://9000advisers.com/ : a consulting firm specializing in implementing ISO quality management systems. He has over thirty years of manufacturing management experience in the metalworking industry and another six years of consulting experience implementing quality and costing systems. He has a BS in Metallurgical Engineering and an MBA.

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Seven Layers of ISO OSI Model

The ISO OSI model are explained below. The seven layers of the OSI model are:
 

• Application
• Presentation
• Session
• Transport
• Network
• Antiqua">Data Link
• Physical

 

1 Application layer:
This layer provides a means for the user to access information on the network through an application. Many user applications that need to communicate over the network interact with the Application layer protocol directly. The user applications are not part of OSI Application layer, use the networking services offered by the networking protocol suite. Application layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, and determining availability of required resources. Some examples of application layer implementations include Telnet, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).
 

2 Presentation layer:
Presentation layer converts local host computer data representations into a standard network format for transmission on the network. On the receiving side, it changes the network format into the appropriate host computer's format so that data can be utilized independent of the host computer. ASCII and EBCDIC conversions, cryptography, and the like are handled here. Examples of Presentation layer coding and conversion schemes include common data representation formats, conversion of character representation formats, common data compression schemes, and common data encryption schemes.
 

Presentation layer implementations are not typically associated with a particular protocol stack. Some well-known standards for video include QuickTime and Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG). QuickTime is an Apple Computer specification for video and audio, and MPEG is a standard for video compression and coding.

3. Session layer:
The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions. Communication sessions consist of service requests and service responses that occur between applications located in different network devices. These requests and responses are coordinated by protocols implemented at the session layer. Some examples of session-layer implementations include AppleTalk's Zone Information Protocol (ZIP), and Decent Phase Session Control Protocol (SCP).
 

4.Transport layer:
Transport layer is responsible for providing reliable service between the hosts. Upper layer datagrams are broken down into manageable datagrams and then appropriate header information (such as sequence number, port number, etc.) is added to the datagram before passing it on to the Network layer. Two frequently used transport protocols are the TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and the UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
 

Important features of Transport layer:

 

• Transport layer ensures reliable service.
• Breaks the message (from sessions layer) into smaller datagrams, and appends appropriate unit header information.
• Responsible for communicating with the Session layer

 

Important features of TCP/UDP:

 

• TCP/IP widely used protocol for Transport/Network layers
• TCP: (Transport Control Protocol) TCP ensures that a packet has reached its intended destination by using an acknowledgement. If not, it retransmits the lost messages. Hence, TCP is called a connection oriented protocol.
• UDP (Universal Data gram Protocol): UDP simply transmits packets over the internet. It does not wait for an acknowledgement. It is the responsibility of upper layer protocols to ensure that the information had reached the intended partner(s). Hence, UDP is often called connectionless protocol.
• Application programs that do not need connection-oriented protocol generally use UDP.

 

5. Network layer:
Network layer is responsible for the routing of packets through the entire network. The layer uses logical addressing for this purpose. Note that the physical address (like MAC address) keeps changing from hop to hop when a packet travels from source to destination. As a result, an address that doesn't change is required to ensure continuity between hops. This is nothing but logical address. For IP networks, IP address is the logical address; and for Novell network, IPX address is the logical address, and so on. This layer also provides for congestion control, and accounting information for the network. IP (Internet Protocol) is an example of a network layer protocol.
 

6. Data link layer:
Data link layer provides delivery of information frames between communicating partners. This layer is responsible for flow regulation, error detection and correction, and framing of bits for transmission. The network data frame is made up of checksum, source address, destination address, and the data itself. The largest frame size that can be sent is known as the maximum transmission Unit (MTU).

Important features of Data link layer:
 

 

• Assembles bits into frames, making them ready for transmission over the network.

   

   

• Provides error detection, and correction to transmitted frames. If the checksum is not correct, it asks for retransmission. (Send a control message).

   

   

• Consists of two sub layers:

   

   

  1. Logical Link Control (LLC): Defines how data is transferred over the cable and provides data link service to the higher layers.

      

      

  2. Medium Access Control (MAC): Controls media access by regulating the communicating nodes using pre-defined set of rules. (i.e. Token passing, Ethernet [CSMA/CD] all have MAC sub-layer protocol).

Different Data link layer protocols define different network and protocol characteristics, including physical addressing, network topology, error notification, sequencing of frames, and flow control. Physical addressing (as opposed to logical addressing) defines how devices are addressed at the data link layer. The protocols used in Data link layer are SLIP, PPP, and CSLP.
 

 

7. Physical layer:
This is the bottom-most layer of the OSI model. The Physical layer handles the bit-level communications across the physical medium. The physical medium could be made up of wired electrical signals, or light, or radio (wireless) signals. Physical layer specifications define characteristics such as media, data rates, maximum transmission distances, and physical connectors.
Some of the important standards that deal with physical layer specifications are:
RS-232(for serial communication lines), X.21, EIA 232, and G730.
Physical layer and Data link layer implementations can be categorized as either LAN or WAN specifications.

Vijayanand has done his post graduation (M.E.) in Communication Systems. He has several years of experience in electronic assembly and design, rf testing, and networking. He is a Cisco Certified Networking Professional, and an MCSE (Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer). He is a director of Anand Software and Training Pvt. Ltd. Complete tutorial on Networking is available at SimulationExams.com

Which ISO Setting Should I Use?

What ISO setting should you use for everyday photography?

There is no simple answer, but have a look at the following responses to decide what is best for you:

"I usually use ISO 100, but if I realise I can’t hold the camera still I increase the ISO or use a tripod"

"I most usually shoot at ISO 100, 200 and occasionally ISO 400. It annoys me that there is slight noise when I zoom on the PC. In reality you won't see it"

"I start at 100, and work up until I get a reasonable shutter speed that I feel I can cope with"

"I set the camera at 200 in good weather and 400 in bad"

"In bad light I don’t go below 400"

"Inside, I start at 400, then go to 800 or more when needed. Outside I start at 100"

"If I tend to get camera shake I increase the ISO till everything is OK"

"In fully automatic mode my camera does this itself"

"I find I use 100 rarely. I prefer to go for a higher ISO to get faster shutter speeds"

So, you can see that the ISO setting is dependent upon the conditions and upon personal preferences. Experiment to find the settings that work best for you.

Eric Hartwell runs the photography resource site http://www.theshutter.co.uk and the associated discussion forums as well as the regular weblog at http://thephotographysite.blogspot.com

The Orphan Child Called ISO

ISO wasn't easy to change on early digital cameras.

First, here's a quick definition: ISO stands for the International Standards Organization. What it really indicates is a digital sensor's sensitivity to light.

A low ISO is less sensitive and a high ISO is very sensitive.

Further translated: a high ISO like 3200 means that the sensor can capture a clear photo, even in low-light conditions. A low ISO like 100 requires a lot of ambient light for clear shots.

So why is this setting so often ignored? It's harder to sell the benefits of ISO (which is pretty confusing to anyone who is not a camera junkie) versus something simpler like speed (2 photos per second or 5 photos per second...which one's faster?).

Well, I'm here today to try to illustrate the benefits of ISO. It is a prominent feature on all of the latest digital cameras, and is something that you should be aware of when you're trying to take photos in available light.

Benefit #1 - Clear hand-held photos

Here's the problem: you're taking photos indoors on an overcast day. The only way that you can get a proper exposure is to slow down the shutter speed to 1/30 of a second.

The camera's shutter needs to stay open 1/30 of a second to let in plenty of light. Unfortunately, the longer the shutter stays open, the more likely your photo will turn out blurry. The blur is caused by camera shake when you hold the camera in your hands.

While blur is sometimes desirable to illustrate motion, most ot the time it's not the effect you want.

You really want to get a clear photograph, but there isn't enough ambient light. You think you're stuck with two options: use a flash, or attach the camera to a tripod so it's stable.

But here comes ISO to offer up a third alternative: set your ISO to 800 or 1600.

This boosts the light sensitivity of the camera's sensor, so you're not forced to keep the shutter open so long. With a shutter speed of 1/125 or 1/250 you can now hold the camera in your hands and get perfectly clear available-light photographs.

Benefit #2 - Atmosphere

As you increase the ISO on your digital camera, you also increase the noise in the photograph. "Noise" is the appearance of dots and specks, typically in shadow areas of the image.

Digital camera manufacturers have gone to great lengths to minimize noise, even at high ISO settings. This is due to benefit #1 above.

But sometimes you might want that noise in your photograph. Let's say you're taking shots on a foggy day, and the mood of the scene could really use some noise, to give the photo an old-time look.

Boost the ISO as high as it will go (usually 3200) and that noise will appear in your photo. In black and white, it really adds to the atmosphere and the quality of the image.

Benefit #3 - Fast shutter speeds

One of the best uses of a really fast shutter speed is to freeze motion.

If you take a lot of photos of sporting events, you need to be using shutter speeds around 1/1000 of a second or faster. There are not many days where there is enough ambient light to use these super-fast shutter speeds.

The only way that you will be able to catch all the action is if you increase your ISO. If you don't want noise in the photo, just increase the ISO enough to get the shutter speed you want. If ISO 400 will get the job done, then use that.

Summary

I hope that this brief introduction has opened your eyes to the usefulness of ISO settings on digital cameras.

I think that the ability to change ISO on the fly is one of the biggest advantages that digital cameras have over film.

With film you'd have to shoot an entire roll at one ISO setting before you could switch to another (or you had to have 2 cameras with different ISO films).

With digital you can change the ISO anytime, anywhere. It gives you complete flexibility and control over the photos that you take.

Changing the ISO setting does take some getting used to, and it's still not easy to do on some digital camera models.

I am sure though that once you start using it, you'll find yourself saying "Please, sir, may I have some more?"

Chris Roberts purchased his first digital SLR camera 3 years ago, and hasn't looked back. He continues to learn and write about new and emerging digital SLRs to this day on his web sites, the Digital SLR Guide and the Digital SLR Guide Weblog

ISO 9001, What Next?

The overriding goal of ISO-14000. (History 1995)

As ISO-9000 becomes a way of life for the global business community, ISO-14000 is almost ready to debut with its own set of standards for voluntary environmental compliance.

Much has been heard recently about the antiregulation sentiment sweeping across the country. Lawmakers in Washington have responded with talk of "regulatory reform" and programs aimed at "re-inventing government."

One of the targets of this regulatory backlash has been the ever-burgeoning flood of environmental laws and regulations continuing to impose burdens on corporate America. A common thread running throughout this rhetoric has been a perception that government is too big and that corporate self-policing and self-management can achieve far greater benefits at far less cost.

It is unlikely that meaningful relief from environmental regulations will come any time soon. However, a major step in the direction of voluntary corporate initiatives in this area is on the horizon.

Getting Ready for 14000

The Geneva-based International Standards Organization, with the assistance of representatives from over 40 countries, is in the final stages of developing ISO-14000, a set of voluntary international environmental quality standards designed to promote sound corporate management of environmental compliance matters.

When fully adopted in early 1996, the standards will allow companies to obtain ISO-14000 certification of their operations in recognition of the development of these comprehensive environmental quality standards.

ISO-14000 is the second major undertaking of the International Standards Organization in developing international quality management systems for business enterprises. In the mid-1980s the Organization adopted its ISO-9000 series of standards for corporate quality management. The ISO-9000 program provided a formal mechanism for certifying that a company had developed and integrated certain quality management principles into its business operations.

While initially slow to gain acceptance in the business community, ISO-9000 certification is fast becoming a necessary part of standard business practices, both in the US and abroad. It is estimated that by 1996, 12,000 US companies will be ISO-9000-certified, up from only 100 in 1990. Internationally, more than 50,000 companies have received ISO-9000 certification.

The idea behind extending the ISO quality management principles into the environmental arena arose out of the historic United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.

Joe Cascio, IBM program director/environmental, health and safety standardization, and chairman of one of the ISO technical advisor groups, reports that the Rio conference discussions produced "a proliferation of national and regional environmental management, labeling and audit schemes that could have impacted international trade in a very severe way." The need to bring some standardization to these conflicting programs ultimately provided the impetus for the formation of ISO-14000.

What IS0-14000 is - and isn't - About

What, then, is ISO-14000 all about? The overriding goal of ISO-14000 is to develop a comprehensive system of universally accepted corporate standards to ensure that companies will be in a position to successfully manage their environmental compliance matters.

ISO-14000 is not about developing regulations to attain certain pollution standards. Instead, the focus is on the management of environmental issues or the development of internal corporate management programs ultimately leading to responsible and verifiable operating strategies that will result in the efficient use of natural resources and the protection of the environment.

ISO-14000 calls for the development of corporate Environmental Management Systems (EMSs) to guide not only the environmental performance of a company's industrial operations but also the potential environmental impact of the goods or services produced.

As envisioned by ISO-14000, an effective corporate EMS requires that a company review the environmental issues and challenges confronting the organization and ultimately develop policies, objectives, target strategies and production processes to meet and properly manage these challenges.

ISO-14000 spells out in detail the guiding principles for the development of effective EMS programs:

First and foremost, ISO-14000 acknowledges that environmental management must be among the highest corporate priorities. ISO-14000 also acknowledges that a company and its highest levels of management must demonstrate their commitment to the EMS process.

Additionally, for effective implementation of EMS programs, ISO-14000 recognizes the importance of adequate resources, including proper employee training, to the success of any EMS.

Finally, ISO-14000 recognizes that standardized and comprehensive procedures must be in place in order to correctly assess the effectiveness of these EMS programs and ensure the accountability of responsible corporate managers for the success or failure of these endeavors.

Moving beyond philosophical principles, ISO-14000 also details the critical elements of an effective EMS. It requires companies to perform an "Initial Environmental Review" of their operations. This review will include an identification of all regulatory obligations and potentially significant environmental impacts of a company's operations. This initial review must also include an honest assessment of the company's compliance status and the extent to which the company is meeting its regulatory obligations.

Once this review is completed and a company understands the status of its environmental compliance efforts, it can then move on to the EMS planning process. ISO-14000 states as one of its guiding principles that "an organization should focus on what needs to be done - it should have a purpose and a plan."

For the implementation of an EMS, the purpose and plan includes the development of overriding environmental policies, the establishment of environmental objectives and targets to meet these policy goals, and the preparation of a strategic plan and management program aimed at implementing these identified policies and objectives through scheduled action items.

The remaining critical component of an effective EMS, as recognized in ISO-14000, is the development of procedures to measure and monitor a company's success in carrying out its EMS and achieving its environmental policy and performance goals.

Critical components of ISO-14000 are the development of standardized performance evaluation and auditing procedures. Once completed, these procedures will be used as benchmarks to assess the true effectiveness of any EMS.

The EMS program outlined in ISO-14000 is by no means revolutionary. In fact, critics of ISO-14000 argue the program is nothing more than a paperwork exercise with few benefits and many burdens. Proponents offer that evaluating existing compliance, documenting findings and actively attempting to manage the environmental impact of one's operation is a challenge for even the most e nvironmentally responsible of corporate citizens.

The corresponding benefits to be gained from this process, say these proponents, include the fostering of good public relations and community and consumer support, the simplification of the compliance challenge through an understandable and orderly EMS implementation process, and the opportunity for cost savings and increased profits resulting from proactive management of environmental liabilities and the thoughtful development of pollution prevention and resource conservation strategies.

What Will the Impact Be?

At this early stage in the ISO-14000 development process, it is hard to predict the exact impact these new standards will have on the industrial community, including the converting industry. Many observers are predicting the impact to be significant and pervasive. In part, this view is bolstered by the dramatic integration of the ISO-9000 standards into the industrial community.

It is expected that companies with substantial international operations will be obligated to pursue ISO-14000 certification as this program continues to gain momentum abroad.

For US operations the impact is a little less certain. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has adopted a "wait and see" attitude on ISO-14000. To date, the Agency has resisted programs that have strayed too far from traditional "command and control" regulatory schemes. Recently, though, with its Common Sense Initiatives and Environmental Leadership Program, EPA appears to be moving in the direction of affirming, if not promoting, ISO-14000-styled programs.

In order for ISO-14000 to truly catch on in the US, however, EPA must move beyond merely a tacit recognition of the program and provide tangible benefits to the regulated community for achieving ISO-14000 recognition.

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ISO 9001 and Total Quality Management

Total Quality Management

Total Quality Management, or TQM, has become one of the most frequently discussed topics in current business literature. Because of the competitive pressures created by Japanese companies, quality became a competitive weapon in the 1980s in most industries. Its role in economic life seems to be attaining a new level in the 1990s; in some industries, such as the automotive industry, quality no longer seems to be a competitive weapon, but rather a prerequisite to survival.

Competitive pressures of the 1980s and 1990s have been felt most strongly in the major industries that are dominated by very large firms. Large U.S. corporations were the first to feel the impact of international competition and suffer its devastating effects. Thus, it is natural that almost all discussions of quality and related issues have focused on large corporations. Small firms seem all but forgotten. This article attempts to attract attention to this neglect and propose a conceptual framework for implementing TQM in the small business environment. Specifically, its emphasis is on small firms in the United States.

The main assumption is that quality is as important for small businesses as it is for large corporations. One reason is that some small companies have been competing directly with foreign firms for a long time; some have suffered the same consequences as large companies, while others have prospered in the competition. A second reason is that many large firms rely on a number of small companies for parts and services they use in producing their products. Quality-conscious corporations are demanding continuously higher quality in the goods and services they buy from small businesses; at the same time, they are reducing considerably the number of vendors. Criteria used in deciding which company to keep as a vendor are based almost entirely on cost and quality. Third, competition in the American economy seems to be intensifying, and new conditions emerge to which small firms have to adapt. Quality and productivity seem to be the indispensable main ingredients in a small firm's struggle for survival in these new conditions.

SMALL BUSINESS DEFINED

A challenging issue one must deal with when writing about small business--an issue that has not yet been settled in a generally accepted manner--is to define what small business is and distinguish it from big business. Most of the attempts at defining small business have to rely on some quantifiable characteristic, such as the number of employees, sales volume, or worth of assets. One classification scheme defines a small business as a firm with fewer than 500 employees. A more detailed classification divides this range further into subcategories: very small (1-19); small (20-99); and medium (100-499). Any company with more than 500 employees is considered to be a big business.

But there are other, qualitative approaches that offer valuable insight into understanding small business. According to The Small Business Act of 1953, a small business is independently owned and operated and not dominant in its field of operation. The Committee for Economic Development, as reported in Broom and Longenecker (1993), proposed identifying a small business as a firm that is characterized by at least two of the following:

Management is independent; usually the manager is also the owner.

Capital is supplied and ownership is held by an individual or a small group.

The area of operations is mainly local; workers and owners tend to be in one home community, although the markets need not be.

The business is small compared to the biggest units in its field.

Clearly, these are all useful definitions of small business, with some more appropriate for certain purposes than others. The classification that divides small businesses into three sub-categories (very small, small, and medium) with respect to the number of employees will be used in the rest of the discussion in this paper--not as rigid groups that are clearly distinguishable from others, but as reference points along a continuum of small businesses of different sizes.

The main reason for this approach is that the number of people a firm employs is usually proportional to the magnitude of its financial and human resources. Consequently, the number of employees is a proxy for the resources a firm may possess. The resources at the disposal of a company play an important role in the implementation of TQM. Therefore, the position of small firms along the size continuum (from 1 to 499 employees) will indicate the level of resources they possess.

THE NATURE OF SMALL BUSINESS

Many believe that a small business is more than just a "scaled-down" version of a big business. What makes it different may be discussed in four categories: (a) ownership, management, and organizational structure; (b) capital and resources; (c) objectives; and (d) markets and customers. In the following paragraphs, characteristics in each category will be described briefly. Later they will be referred to as they relate to applying TQM in the small business environment.

Ownership, Management, and Organizational Structure

Almost all small businesses start small and stay that way. Usually they are started by an entrepreneur who has a bright idea about a service or has developed a new product that fills a niche. A majority of small firms are privately owned; only about 40,000 of them are publicly traded. In most cases the business is owned by the entrepreneur, or jointly by close family members. The management is independent; usually the owner is the manager and reports to no one, or to other members of the family if they are also owners. Absentee ownership is very rare.

Although owners/entrepreneurs are generally experts in the product or service they produce, they usually have neither the education nor the skills required to manage a business. Many small business owners, who do not understand the intricacies of running a business and being proud craftsmen, may think those duties are beneath them. Yet they end up making most of the decisions--at least all the critical ones. Often they do not know how to delegate authority and responsibility, or the organization lacks qualified people to assume some of the authority and responsibility. Consequently, an owner has to make decisions in areas such as inventory or finance that are usually the responsibility of expert professionals in large firms.

Organization structure in a small firm is usually very simple, with few layers. Sometimes management positions are filled by family members, making it a truly family business. Employees usually perform a variety of tasks, often giving the business greater flexibility than larger businesses have. In general, organizational complexity and the number of levels increase as one moves from companies with a few employees to the higher end of the size continuum.

Capital and Resources

Because of the nature of ownership, typical small business firms often suffer from a shortage of capital. Originally, capital is supplied by the owner or the owner's family. Additional capital for growth, or Short-term credit for weathering bad times, is very difficult to raise. The main reason for the difficulty in obtaining long-term financing is that a large proportion of a typical small firm's assets includes short-lived equipment and fixtures, leaving insufficient long-term assets to qualify for long-term loans. Many small businesses do not even have sufficient record keeping to provide the necessary documents for bank loans. Insufficient capital is usually the main reason why most small businesses are service companies.

In addition to sparse. physical resources, small businesses are also severely limited in human resources, and so cannot attract highly qualified and experienced managers or professionals. Again, this weakness disappears as the firm grows in size and sales. Many small companies, however, provide some employees with a rich learning experience because of their focus on craftsmanship and the multitude of tasks required of them.

Objectives

Many small businesses are established as a means of self-employment. As long as the owner receives a satisfactory income, there may be no desire to expand the business. In some cases, the motive for profit may take a back seat to other motives, such as pride and craftsmanship. Some may become small business owners because they prefer a more relaxed and less competitive environment. Some have the objective of maintaining ownership and control of the business. Thus, growth is not an objective for many owners. According to Solomon (1986), most small firms fall into this category.

Driso provide ISO 9001 2000 consultancy, auditing, software, and training Services. They also supply Easy ISO 9001 2000® software for initially setting up an ISO 9001 2000 compliant Quality Management System or improving upon an existing one.

To contact Driso Consultancy Services visit the web site below and see what they can do for you and your business. Contact: http://www.driso.co.uk for more details.